I. INTRODUCTION Since the creation of the European Union its purpose has been to unite the European continent into one cohesive organization. In order for this goal to be fully realized all European nations must be included under this conglomeration of states. Unfortunately the process is not quite so simple. It takes years of careful evaluation of numerous factors most importantly including economic status, respect for international law and basic human rights, and military status amongst other numerous yet equally important facts. Before a state can be admitted it must first be determined that by admitting the state that it will have a generally good affect on the community as a whole and not simply benefit any single nation. Political orientation also plays a large role in deciding whether or not to accept a nation, since the organization was partially founded on the idea of “self determination”. After taking into consideration all these facts it is easy to see why it takes so long to approve a state for membership within the EU. Any hastily made decisions could quite easily have long lasting socio-economic impacts on other members of the union and make them weary to admit new members. y9r7rn
The European Union has been enlarging ever since it was created at the beginning of the 1950’s. The founding members called upon the people of Europe” who share their ideas to join their efforts”. Since then, it has grown from the initial six members to nine, ten, twelve and then to the current fifteen through a series of enlargements. The process is still continuing. The EU is now negotiating with twelve more candidates for membership, and preparing for negotiations with Turkey, as soon as the country fulfils the political accession criteria, including respect for human rights.
This latest enlargement is a consequence of the very nature of the EU. The success of the EU and the values it is based on has attracted successive waves of new members, from countries with a wide variety of economic and political backgrounds. Their integration into the EU has each time deepened the quality of the EU, for existing member states and new member states. Each successive enlargement has brought benefits to Europe’s citizens, new opportunities for European businesses and wider acceptance of European norms in fields ranging from consumer and environmental protection to political rights and social provision. The organic growth has enriched Europe as a whole.
Enlargement is one of the most important opportunities for the European Union as it begins the 21st Century. Its historic task is to further the integration of the continent by peaceful means, extending a zone of stability and prosperity to new members. In June 1993, at its Summit in Copenhagen, the European declared “the associated countries of Central and Eastern Europe that so desire shall become members of the Union”. In December 1997, at Luxembourg the European Council launched the process that will make enlargement possible. This process presently embraces thirteen countries: Romania, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia and Turkey. Accession negotiations are underway with the first twelve, and in June 2001 at Göteborg the European Council affirmed that the objective is to complete them by the end of 2002 with these countries that are ready to join, so that they can take part as members in the European Parliament’s elections of 2004.
The EU has a long history of successful enlargements. In 1957 six founding members signed the Treaty of Rome: Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Four enlargements have followed:
1973: Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom
1981: Greece
1986: Portugal and Spain
1995: Austria, Finland and Sweden
The benefits of enlargement are both political and economic, and can be summarized as follows:
· The extension of the zone of peace, stability and prosperity in Europe will enhance the security of all its peoples.
· The addition of more than 100 million people, in rapidly growing economies, to the EU’s market of 370 million will boost economic growth and create jobs in both old and new member states.
· There will be a better quality of life for citizens throughout Europe as the new members adopt the EU policies for protection of the environment and the fight against crime, drugs and illegal immigration.
· Enlargement will strengthen the Union’s role in world affairs -; in foreign and security policy, trade policy, and the other fields of global governance.
The Accession process from negotiations to ratification
On the basis of the recommendations of the European Commission in December 1997, the Luxembourg European Council decided to launch an “overall enlargement process” for all countries wishing to join the EU. It encompasses:
· The European Conference, which brings together the countries aspiring to join the EU. The Conference is a multilateral forum for discussing issues of common interest, such as foreign and security policy, justice and home affairs, regional co-operation and economic matters. This conference met for the first time in London on 12 March 1998. In December 1999, the Helsinki European Council announced a review of the future of the European Council, so as to take account of the evolving situation. The Nice European Council in December 2000 concluded that the Balkan countries
· covered by the stabilization and association process and the EFTA countries be invited to attend as prospective members.
· The accession process which was launched in Brussels on 30 March 1998 and encompasses all ten Central and Eastern European countries, Cyprus, Malta and Turkey. It is an evolving and inclusive process in the sense that all these countries are destined to join the EU on the basis of the same criteria.

The principles of negotiations
The main principles behind the accession negotiations are fourfold. Firstly, they focus specifically on the terms under which candidates adopt, implement and enforce the acquis.
Secondly, transitional arrangements may be possible, but these must be limited in the scope and duration and should not have a significant impact on competition or the functioning of the internal market. In addition they should be accompanied by a plan with clearly defined stages for the application of the acquis.
A third underlying principle in the negotiations is the concept of differentiation. The decision to enter into negotiations simultaneously with a group of countries does not imply that these negotiations will be concluded at the same time. The negotiations with the candidate countries are conducted individually; the pace of each negotiation depends on the degree of preparation by each candidate country and the complexity of the issues to be resolved.
Finally, there is the principle of catching up. In deciding to open negotiations also with a second group of countries, the Helsinki European Council in December 1999, stipulated that “candidate States which have now been brought into the negotiation process will have the possibility to catch up within a reasonable period of time with those already in negotiations if they have made sufficient progress in their preparations”. Each candidate is thus judged on its own merits.

The negotiation process
The actual negotiations take the form of a series of bilateral inter-governmental conferences between the EU Member States and each of the candidate countries. Following a detailed examination of the different chapters of the acquis (“screening”), such as free movement of goods, agriculture, environment, etc., negotiations are opened with the candidate countries, chapter by chapter. The Commission proposes common negotiating positions for the EU for each chapter. Negotiations positions are then approved unanimously by the Council. Negotiating sessions are held at the level of ministries or deputies, i.e. Permanent Representatives for the Member States, and Ambassadors or chief negotiators for the candidates. A chapter is considered “provisionally closed” with a candidate country when the EU notes that the chapter does not require further negotiation and the candidate concerned accepts the EU common position. The EU however may return to the chapter at a later stage during the negotiation process, in case new acquis would have been adopted with regard to the chapter concerned, or in case the candidate country concerned fails to implement the commitments it has taken on this chapter.

II. THEORY OF ENLARGEMENT

After successfully growing from 6 to 15 members, the European Union is now preparing for its biggest enlargement ever in terms of scope and diversity. 13 countries have applied to become new members: 10 countries in central and eastern Europe - Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia -; and Malta, Cyprus and Turkey.
These countries, with a wealth of different histories and cultures, have been preparing for membership for more than a decade. In order to join the Union, they need to fulfill the economic and political conditions known as the ‘Copenhagen criteria’, according to which a prospective member must:
· be a stable democracy, respecting human rights, the rule of law, and the protection of minorities;
· have a functioning market economy;
· adopt the common rules, standards and policies that make up the body of EU law.
The EU assists these countries in taking on EU laws, and provides a range of financial assistance to improve their infrastructure and economy.
Negotiations for membership are under way with 12 of the applicant countries (not yet with Turkey, which does not yet meet the political conditions). On 9th October 2002, the Commission recommended to close negotiations with Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, the Slovak
Republic and Slovenia.
The objective is that the first group of new members should join the EU in time for the elections to the European Parliament scheduled for June 2004.

Accession criteria
In 1993, at the Copenhagen European Council, the Member States took a decisive step towards the current enlargement, agreeing that 'the associated countries in central and eastern Europe that so desire shall become members of the European Union.' Thus, enlargement was no longer a question of 'if' but 'when'. Here too, the European Council provided a clear response:
”Accession will take place as soon as an applicant is able to assume the obligations of membership by satisfying the economic and political conditions required”.
At the same time, the Member States designed the membership criteria, which are often referred to as the Copenhagen Criteria.
As stated in Copenhagen, membership requires that the candidate country has achieved:
· stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights and respect for and protection of minorities;
· the existence of a functioning market economy as well as the capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the Union;
· the ability to take on the obligations of membership including adherence to the aims of political, economic and monetary union.
· the conditions for its integration through the adjustment of its administrative structures, so that European Community legislation transposed into national legislations implemented effectively through appropriate administrative and judicial structures.
The Luxembourg European Council (December 1997) also underlined that 'as a prerequisite for enlargement of the Union, the operation of the institutions must be strengthened and improved in keeping with the institutional provisions of the Amsterdam Treaty'.

Review procedure-Regular Reports
Following the publication of the Commission’s Opinions on the progress of the candidate countries in 1997, the Commission submits regular reports to the Council on further progress achieved by each country. The reports serve as a basis for the Council to take decisions on the conduct of negotiations or their extension to other candidates on the basis of the accession criteria (see page 10). The Commission submitted the first set of these Regular Reports, covering the ten associated countries in central Europe, Cyprus and Turkey, to the Council in November 1998.
On that basis, the analysis of progress made by candidate countries did not lead the Commission to modify its evaluation made in July 1997. Therefore, it did not feel it necessary to make new recommendations "on the conduct or extension of the negotiations". However, it did note
· the particular progress made by Latvia and indicated that "if the momentum of change is maintained, it should be possible to confirm next year that Latvia meets the Copenhagen economic criteria and, before the end of 1999, to propose the opening of negotiations."
· that considerable progress has also been made by Lithuania. However, "additional measures are needed and some recent decisions need to be tested in practice before it can be considered to have met the Copenhagen criteria, which would allow the Commission to propose the opening of negotiations."
· that "the new situation created in Slovakia following the elections also allows for the prospect of opening negotiations on condition that the regular, stable and democratic functioning of its institutions is confirmed. It will also be necessary, before opening negotiations, to verify that Slovakia has undertaken measures to correct the economic situation and has introduced greater transparency in its operation."
· that "Bulgaria has made considerable progress in macroeconomic stabilisation and the reforms which are being implemented, also at an early stage, are helping to improve its international competitiveness."
· that "Romania has not made further progress since the Opinion and its economic situation gives cause for concern. Sustained efforts are needed, with the support of the EU and the international community, to accelerate reforms and put Romania back on track."
The Vienna European Council (December 1998) welcomed and generally endorsed the European Commission's Regular Reports. Following the reactivation by Malta of its application for membership in October 1998, the Commission adopted, on 17 February 1999, an update of its Opinion from 1993. The European Commission presented its next Regular Reports in October 1999, covering the ten associated countries in central Europe, Cyprus, Malta and Turkey, to make them available for the Helsinki European Council, which took place in December 1999.
In line with the decisions of the Cologne European Council, the Commission adopted on 13 October its regular reports and a more general composite paper on the progress made by each of the candidate countries (ten central European countries, Cyprus, Malta and Turkey) towards accession (COM(1999) 500-513 19/10).
The regular reports contain a detailed analysis of the progress made by these 13 candidate countries since November 1998. They show that all countries except Turkey fulfil the political criteria for accession and that only Cyprus and Malta fully meet the economic criteria. Regarding the adoption of the acquis, the situation varies between countries : while good progress was made by Hungary, Latvia and Bulgaria the pace of transposition in Poland and the Czech Republic was slow.
Based on these regular reports, the Commission has recommended, in its composite paper, to open negotiations with Malta, Latvia, Lithuania, and Slovakia and also with Bulgaria and Romania but subject to certain conditions for the latter two. The Commission has also recommended to conduct accession negotiations through a differentiated approach taking account of the progress made by each candidate and to consider Turkey as a candidate country. It has furthermore suggested that the EU institutional reform be in force by 2002 to allow the accession of the first candidates that fulfil the criteria.
The Helsinki European Council on 10 December 1999 welcomed these regular reports and decided to follow the Commission recommendations.
The Nice Council (December 2000) reaffirmed the historic significance of the European Union enlargement process and the political priority which it attaches to the success of that process. It welcomed the stepping up of accession negotiations with the candidate countries, which has brought very considerable progress, particularly in recent months.
Now, the EU says it will be "in a position to welcome those new member states which are ready as from the end of 2002, in the hope that they will be able to take part in the next European Parliament elections" - which are scheduled for mid-2004. The next critical point in the process will be at the EU summit in Gothenburg, in June 2001, when EU leaders "will assess progress in implementing that new strategy, in order to give the necessary guidance for the successful completion of the process".
Meanwhile, the summit expressed appreciation for the efforts made by the candidates, and requested them "to continue and speed up the necessary reforms to prepare themselves for accession, particularly as regards strengthening their administrative capacity, so as to be able to join the Union as soon as possible". And it welcomed the establishment of economic and financial dialogue with the candidate countries.
In a bid to alleviate some of the most acute EU concerns over enlargement, EU leaders in Nice also called on the Commission "to propose a program for the frontier regions in order to strengthen their economic competitiveness."

Agenda 2000 and the European Commission’s Opinions
The Madrid European Council in December 1995 called on the European Commission to submit an assessment of the candidates' applications for membership as soon as possible after the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) on the reform of the EU's institutions, which was completed in June 1997 in Amsterdam, and to prepare a detailed analysis of what enlargement would mean for the EU. It also reaffirmed that the necessary decisions for launching accession negotiations would be taken within six months of the IGC's conclusion.
In July 1997, the Commission presented Agenda 2000, a single framework in which the Commission outlines the broad perspective for the development of the European Union and its policies beyond the turn of the century; addresses the challenge of enlargement. It draws the main conclusions and recommendations from the individual opinions on the applicant countries and gives the Commission’s views on the launching of the accession process and on reinforcement of the pre-accession strategy, the impact of enlargement on the EU as a whole; and the future financial framework beyond 2000, taking into account the prospect of an enlarged Union.
The Commission's Opinions evaluated the situation of each country in relation to the accession criteria. The Commission took into account information provided by the candidate countries themselves; assessments made by the member States; European Parliament reports and resolutions; the work of other international organizations and international financial institutions (IFIs); and progress made under the Europe Agreements. Finally, the Opinions were not only an assessment of the performance of each country up until 1997, but also a forward-looking analysis of expected progress. The Commission had already issued Opinions on Turkey in 1989 and Cyprus and Malta in 1993.

Having evaluated the extent to which the candidates already met the accession criteria, the European Commission recommended that accession negotiations start with the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia and Cyprus.

The enlargement process
On the basis of the recommendations of the EC, the Luxembourg European Council (December 1997) decided to launch an overall enlargement process for all countries wishing to join the EU. It encompasses the European conference which brings together the countries aspiring to join the EU: the ten candidate countries from central Europe, Cyprus, Turkey and now Malta as well. The Conference is a multilateral forum for discussing issues of common interest, such as foreign and security policy, justice and home affairs, regional cooperation or economic matters.
This conference met for the first time in London on 12 March 1998. The second meeting took place in Luxembourg on 6 October 1998 and the third one in Brussels on 19 July 1999, at the level of foreign affairs ministers. On all occasions, Turkey declined the invitation the Accession process, which was launched in Brussels on 30 March 1998 for all the ten central European candidates and Cyprus. It is an evaluative and inclusive process in the sense that all these countries are destined to join the EU on the basis of the same criteria, regardless of whether or not they have already started negotiations. It includes an enhanced pre-accession strategy the accession negotiations a so-called "screening" of EC legislation and a review procedure the accession negotiations process, which determines the conditions under which each candidate country will join the EU. The negotiations focus specifically on the terms under which candidates adopt, implement and enforce the acquis communautaire. In certain cases, the granting of transitional arrangements may be possible, but these must be limited in scope and duration.
Thirteen applicant countries are presently engaged in the process: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Romania, Bulgaria, Malta, Cyprus, Turkey. Accession negotiations are under way with the first twelve, and the objective affirmed at the European Council in Gothenburg is to complete them by the end of 2002 with those countries that are ready to join, so that they can take part as members in the European Parliament’s elections of 2004.

III. CANDIDATE COUNTRIES FROM CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE AND THE ACQUIS

BULGARIA

· Country profile

Area: Area110,993 sq. km
Population: approximately 8 million citizens
Capital city: Sofia
Borders: To the north with Romania and the Danube river, to the east is the Black Sea, to the south are Turkey and Greece, and to the west - the FYR of Macedonia and Yugoslavia.
· Form of State:
Parliamentary republic
The largest part of the population is urban. 85% of Bulgarians are Christian Orthodox, whereas 13% of the population profess Islam. The Bulgarian ethnic group represents 85.8% of the population. Other major ethnic groups are the Turks (9.7%) and Roma (3.4%).
The Bulgarian landscape is highly diverse. The vast lowlands of the Danube plains dominate the North and in the south there are highlands and elevated plains. Along the Black Sea coast there are 130 km of excellent vast beaches.
Bulgaria has a moderate continental climate with average annual temperatures of 10.5°. There is a marked Mediterranean influence in the climate in the southern parts of the country.
Bulgaria is one of the most ancient states on the European continent. It was founded in 681. Its rich historic heritage, coupled with beautiful natural scenery is most conducive to the development of tourism. The country is famous for its Tracian Gold Treasure. It also boasts nine cultural monuments and natural reserves featuring on the UNESCO list, among which the Rila Monastery, the Boyana Church, the Madara Horseman, and the Pirin National Park.
Besides its Black Sea coast and beautiful mountains that attract tourists all the year round, Bulgaria is also famous for its Rose Valley. The rose oil produced here is a precious ingredient in Bulgarian and world perfume production.
Bulgaria’s main exports are light industry products, foods and wines, which are successfully competing on European markets.
Bulgaria is world famous for its folk music. A Bulgarian folk song was recorded on the Gold Record that was sent in outer space.

· SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

Bulgaria is a parliamentary republic. The Constitution is the supreme law of the country. The latest Constitution of the Republic of Bulgaria was adopted in July of 1991 and features all basic principles of modern constitutionalism. It provides for a multi-party parliamentary system and free elections on the basis of universal suffrage. The three branches of power in Bulgaria are the legislative, the executive and the judicial.
The 240-seat National Assembly, or Parliament, is invested with the legislative power. The Members of Parliament are directly elected to a 4-year term on the basis of proportional representation. Parties and electoral coalitions need 4% of the popular vote to qualify.
The President serves as Head of State, and is directly elected once every 5 years for a maximum of two terms. The Vice President is elected on the same ballot as the President.
The President is also the Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Bulgaria and appoints and dismisses the senior command. He appoints the Prime-Minister designate to form a government, schedules the elections and sets the date for national referendums, and countersigns, together with the Prime Minister or the respective sector minister, decrees for the promulgation of the adopted laws.
The Council of Ministers (the Government) chaired by the Prime Minister is the principal body of the Executive Branch. The Prime-Minister-designate is nominated by the largest parliamentary group and is given a mandate by the President to form a cabinet. The National Assembly elects the proposed Council of Ministers. The activity of the Council of Ministers is under the direct control of the National Assembly.
The judiciary is an independent branch of power and is based on a three-instance procedure.
· ECONOMY

Since the 1996-97 crisis, the country has achieved macro-economic stability and has a stable currency board, low basic interest rate, and substantial foreign-exchange reserves. Real economic growth significantly accelerated from 2.4 percent in 1999 to 5.8 percent in 2000, and this trend has been confirmed by the latest 2001 data (4.5 percent in the first quarter).




















CZECH REPLUBIC

Area: 78,866km2
Population: 10.3 million
Neighbours: (border in km) Germany (646), Poland (658), Slovakia (215), Austria (362)
Density: 131 inhabitants per km2
Distribution: 66% urban population, 34% rural population
Ethnic profile: Czech (94%), Slovak (3%), Polish (0.6%), German (0.5%), Roma (0.3%), Hungarian (0.2%), Others (1%)
Language: Czech
Religion: Atheist (39.8%), Roman Catholic (39.2%), Protestant (4.6%), Orthodox (3%), Other (13.4%)
Life expectancy Average: 74.1 - 70.8 years (male), 77.7 (female)
GDP/capita 12,498 ECU (PPS) in 1999 (PPS) (Eurostat)
59% of EU-15 average (1999)
Currency: 1 Crown or CZK = 100 halire - 1 crown = c.37 EURO (January 2001)
Trade with EU Surplus: 0.1 billion
Exports to the EU: 17.3 billion
Imports from the EU: 17.4 billion (1999 figures)
Trade balance: -1.89 million (1999)
Capital city: Prague (Praha)
This landlocked country is situated in the geographic centre of Europe and consists of three historical areas -; Bohemia, Moravia and the Czech part of Silesia. The Czech Republic is called the roof of Europe since all the rivers which have their source in the area drain into neighbouring countries.
The territory of the Czech Republic was historically one of the most economically developed and industrialised part of Europe. As the only country in central Europe to remain a democracy until 1938, the then Czechoslovakia was among the ten most developed industrial states of the world before the second world war. Coal and lignite are in abundant supply. There are also deposits of mercury, antimony, tin, lead, zinc and iron ore, and a number of major European uranium deposits. Processing industries (machinery, steel, chemicals, glass, and agri-food) are the most highly developed. Cereals, sugar beet and hops are intensively cultivated, although agriculture plays a comparatively small role alongside the traditional engineering and other industries.
The attractiveness of the Czech Republic and especially of its capital city, Prague, lies in a remarkable historical and architectural heritage stretching back over 1.000 years, and brings over 10 million visitors a year to the Czech Republic. Throughout the centuries Prague preserved its unrivalled richness of historical monuments of different styles. Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Art Nouveau and cubism form a unique aesthetic unit. Castles and chateaux built in the past centuries still dominate the Czech landscape. Many monuments of folk architecture, picturesque villages and living traditions of folk music and local folk costumes are typical for the Moravian region.
Czech beverages such as Czech beer or mineral water from more than 900 natural springs (a world record) are extremely popular.

POLITICAL SITUATION
Official name: Czech Republic (came into being on 1/1/1993)
Constitution Parliamentary Republic; Constitution entered into force on 1 January, 1993
Electoral system Universal direct suffrage for party proportional representation, subject to 5% threshold
After World War II, the political system in Czechoslovakia was greatly affected by the introduction of a Soviet-style Communist regime, as it was in the other countries of central and eastern Europe. The system of power was distorted. In effect this imbalance meant that the three branches of power necessary for democratic development - executive, legislative and judicial - were substituted by a unified Communist power. Its power was based on the constitution and for forty years it ruled all layers of social and political life throughout the country with the help of oppressive institutions. After February 1948, the Communist Party became the only autonomous political entity. It allowed a few other parties to exist within the so-called National Front; however, these parties held no real power and were created to provide an outward image of Czechoslovakia as a democratic state.
After the revolutionary events of November 1989 which brought about the downfall of the Communist regime, the entire country faced the uneasy task of resuming its pre-Communist traditions and building a democratic political system. A wide diversity of political parties were well-established even before the break-up of Czechoslovakia on December 31, 1992. The constitution of the Czech Republic, which became valid on the day of the birth of the new state, explicitly defined civil rights, the relationship between the executive and legislative branches of power, and the independence of the judiciary.

· CURRENT GOVERNMENT (As of 15 July 2002)
President Vaclav Havel Head of State
Dr. Vladimir Spidla Prime Minister
Stanislav Gross Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of the Interior
Dr. Cyril Svoboda Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs
Dr. Pavel Rychetský Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Justice
Petr Mareš Deputy Prime Minister
Bohuslav Sobotka Minister of Finance
Jaroslav Tvrdik Minister of Defence
Jiri Rusnok Minister of Industry and Trade
Zdenek Skromach Minister of Labour and Social Affairs
Milan Simonovský Minister of Transport and Communications
Jaroslav Palas Minister of Agriculture
Dr. Marie Souckova Minister of Health
Dr. Petra Buzkova Minister of Education, Youth and Sports
Pavel Dostal Minister of Culture
Dr. Libor Ambrozek Minister of Environment
Pavel Nemec Minister for Regional Development
Vladimir Mlynar Minister for Information Technologies
Pavel Telicka State Secretary for European Affairs Chief negotiator/EU



CYPRUS

Area: 9,251 km? - about 37% of the Republic's territory remains under Turkish control. 1.8% forms part of the buffer zone along the cease-fire line, 5% is covered by two UK sovereign base areas.
Population: According to the Cypriot government the total population living in territories under its control is 640,000 (1998), and 88,000 Turkish Cypriots live in the north (Source: Department of Statistics and Research). According to Turkish Cypriot sources (as reported in Cyprus Diary 2000) the population in the north is estimated at around 200,000, of which 107,000 are Turkish Cypriots and the remaining are Turks originating from mainland Turkey (30,000 Turkish military stationed in the island not included).
Distribution: 69% urban population, 31% rural population
Capital city: Nicosia, population 195,300 Other cities: Limassol, Larnaca, Paphos, Kyrenia , Famagusta and Morphou
Official Languages: Greek and Turkish
Religion: Greek Orthodox, Moslem, Armenian, Roman Catholic, Maronite.
Currency: November 2001: Cyprus Pounds = 100 cents = 1.74 Euro

GDP/capita 1999: EUR 13,000 at current prices source EUROSTAT not including the northern part
THE CYPRUS QUESTION -; HISTORY
7000 B.C. first settlers came to the island. During the Copper Stone Age (3700 -; 2500 B.C.) copper was worked for the first time in Cyprus. In the Middle Bronze Age (1900 -; 1650 B.C.) trade developed and Cypriot seafarers ranged as far as Egypt, Syria and Babylon as well as Crete and Sicily. Cyprus became a major exporter of copper giving thus the name to the island. During the late Bronze Age (1600 -; 1050 B.C.) economic and cultural growth coincided with the Minoan Crete culture which became the basic root of European civilisation. In the beginning of the Iron Age (1050 -; 600 B.C.) developments in Greece and Cyprus were parallel although Cyprus had retained close cultural and commercial ties with the Orient, a fact which distinguishes it from most of the other areas characterised by a common Greek culture. Cyprus was not only governed by Greeks and Phoenicians during the coming period but also by others like the Assyrians, the Egyptians and the Persians so that it became a multi-ethnic culture. During the Hellenistic period (325 B.D. -; 50 B.D.) and the Roman period (50 -; 395 A.D.) Cyprus belonged to whichever empire was in power in the Mediterranean. With the Byzantine era (from 395 on) the entire island had been christianised. The rise of the Arab Umayad Dynasty made Cyprus a base for their fleets for their attacks against Byzantnians but it never had Cyprus really under control. At the time of the Crusades Cyprus got only involved by chance when Richard the Lionheart freed his future wife from the self-appointed "Emperor of Cyprus" Isaak Komemnos in 1191. Richard sold the island to the Templars but in the end the head of a French noble family, Guy de Lusignan, became the new owner of Cyprus. He invited nobles who had lost their homes in Palestine to the Muslims to settle in Cyprus.
After the fall of Akko Cyprus remained the head of trade in the eastern Mediterranean, and became particularly important for the Italian city states of Venice and Genoa. Under the Lusignan dynasty which lasted for about 3 centuries the island became one of the world’s richest countries. Palaces and gothic chambers sprung up in the country. Nevertheless most native Cypriots were nothing but bondsmen, the Greek Orthodox Church was suppressed. In 1373 the Genoese conquered and plundered Famagusta. Cyprus was forced to pay tribute to them. Behind that was the power struggle between Venice and Genoa for control over the lucrative trade links in the eastern Mediterranean. In 1426 the Muslim Mameluks took Nicosia and other cities. From then on Cyprus had to pay tribute to Egypt as well. Under pressure the last ruler of Cyprus, Catarina Cornaro, ceded Cyprus to the Republic of Venice in 1489. With the expansion of the Ottoman Empire one after the other Venetian possessions in the Mediterranean fell to the Sultan. In 1570 at the height of the power of the Ottomans Sultan Selim II conquered Cyprus. Many inhabitants welcomed the new rulers who reduced harsh Venetian taxes and abolished the feudal system; bondsmen became free peasants on their own land, which they were permitted to buy at advantageous terms and the Greek Orthodox Church got restored their rights and privileges with the Millet system. From 1660 the archbishop was, with the dragoman, also a Christian, the official representative of the Greek Orthodox Christians. The Ottomans brought about 20,000 Muslim colonists on the island. Cities and villages populated by Christians and Muslims came into being. The Catholic churches and cathedrals were turned into mosques for the new immigrants and soldiers. The property of the Greek Orthodox Church was not touched. Cut off from the European trade routes, the once flourishing island sank into insignificance and economic stagnation, and the exploitation of the island’s inhabitants increased again with heavy tax burdens. Christians had to pay higher taxes which caused entire village communities to convert to Islam. Others found a compromise in practising Islam in public and were registered as Muslims, but in practice they remained Christians. They were called "linopamaki" (made up of the words for "linen and cotton") which expressed their dual status on into the early 20th century when nationalism rendered it impossible. In 1815 a European diplomat reported that Cyprus was formally governed by a bey but in reality by the archbishop. Reports exist of Christians and Muslims uniting to rise up in arms against the almighty troika consisting of the archbishop, the dragoman and the bey. The reign of the clergy as a "state within the state" did come to a violent end in 1821. The government at the time seized the beginning of the Greek struggle against the Ottomans as a welcome opportunity to get rid of his rival Archbishop together with other people. With the decline of the Ottoman empire the Great Powers of Europe became concerned about the situation of the Sublime Port and the drive of the Russians to the Mediterranean. Britain saw her trade routes (India) threatened. In 1878 London concluded a military treaty with Turkey -; called Convention of Defensive Alliance. It was designed to stop Russian expansion. It assigned the island of Cyprus to be occupied and administered by Great Britain and ended 300 years of Ottoman rule. Cyprus became again strategically important now as a permanent base for the British fleet. It secured the sea route to India via the Suez Canal, which had been opened in 1869. But in 1882 Britain got Alexandria in Egypt, which was in a better strategic position. This reduced British ambitions to invest more in Cyprus. Although the Cypriots had welcomed the change in the hope of avoiding the burden of Ottoman taxes they now had to finance the interest on the lease that had been negotiated between London and Istanbul with their taxes. The British introduced their colonial administration in the usual form of a "legislative council" where the inhabitants of the island were represented. 9 Greek and 3 Turkish Cypriots were represented together with 6 British who had a veto together with the Turkish Cypriots. In 1914 Great Britain annexed the island after Turkey entered the war on Germany’s side. In 1925 Cyprus was declared a British Crown Colony. Taxation and the British refusal to consider "enosis" - union with Greece - led to a rebellion of Greek Cypriots in 1931. The house of the British governor went up in flames. As a result the instigators were deported and all political parties banned.
· NEWER HISTORY
After the Second World War where 25,000 Cypriots fought on the Allied side, "enosis" arose again amongst Greek Cypriots. The Turkish Cypriots who made up for about 18% of the population preferred partition if the British left. In 1955 the "National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters (EOKA)" started fighting for independence. In 1960 Cyprus became an independent state. The agreements provided for a division of power along communal lines. This played into the hands of nationalism. Politicians, lacking experience of democratic culture, made little efforts to establish consensus. The outcome was a political crisis, which spilled over into fighting on the streets in 1963. Finally the Turkish Cypriots withdrew from the common institutions in 1964. The United Nations sent for the first time forces -; UNFICYP -; to the island which are still there. In 1967 a military junta took over power in Athens. Its leaders discussed with Turkey proposals to get rid of president Makarios by dividing the island but the junta did not agree on the Turkish demand for two military bases and 10 % of the island territory. As a consequence President Makarios relied even more heavily on the leftist party, Akel, at home and the Soviet Union, internationally. The junta finally staged a coup in 1974 but Makarios escaped. Turkish troops landed in Cyprus. The Greek junta collapsed. Talks started in Geneva. In a second military operation Turkey seized one third of the island, leaving 200,000 refugees unable to return to their homes. The Greek coup and the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus created international outrage. Since then various efforts of the UN to come to a peace agreement failed. The country became divided. Nicosia, the capital, still has a wall like Berlin once had.
· INSTITUTIONS
The Republic of Cyprus is an independent sovereign republic with a presidential system of government. The 1960 Constitution has been retained although all provisions relating to the participation of the Turkish community in the exercise of executive, legislative and judicial powers are no longer applied. Under the Constitution, the President of the Republic, elected for 5 years by direct universal suffrage, exercises the executive power through a Council of Ministers which he appoints. The current President is Mr Glafcos Clerides. The next presidential elections will be held in February 2003. The Legislative power is exercised by the House of Representatives. Since the withdrawal of the Turkish Cypriots from the Republic’s institutions (1963), the House of Representatives has functioned only with Greek Cypriots parliamentarians. They are elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term. The last elections were held on 27 May 2001. There is a special Committee for EU and External Affairs in order to assist the harmonisation process. This Committee consisting of 19 members, examines all legislative instruments that are required for the approximation of the national legislation to the acquis, with the possibility of a fast-track. The administration of justice is exercised by an independent judiciary. The main judicial institutions are the following: The Supreme Court of the Republic, The Assize Court (Permanent Assize Court for all Districts), District Courts, Military Court, Industrial Disputes Court, Rent Control Courts, Family Courts. The Attorney-General of the Republic is appointed by the President of the Republic. He is the Head of the Law Office of the Republic which is an independent office and a key element in the harmonisation process. The Attorney-General is the legal adviser of the President and of the Council of Ministers.



· EU - CYPRUS RELATIONS
The EU and Cyprus signed an Association Agreement in December 1972 that was complemented by a Protocol concluded in 1987. It constitutes the legal framework for current EU-Cyprus relations. The EU is Cyprus’ largest trading partner (51% and 57% of respectively Cyprus exports and imports in the year 2000). A Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC), consisting of members of the EP and of the Chamber of Representatives of Cyprus, was set up in 1991. It meets twice a year. Cyprus also benefits from regional and horizontal measures under the MEDA Programme. The office of the Delegation of the European Commission was opened in Nicosia in May 1990. The Republic of Cyprus applied for membership in July 1990. In 1993 the Commission concluded that the application was made in the name of the whole island. In the expectation of significant progress in the UN talks for a settlement the Commission considered Cyprus as eligible for membership. On 6 March 1995, the General Affairs Council Conclusion confirmed Cyprus’s suitability for membership and established that accession negotiations with Cyprus would start 6 months after the end of the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC). A structured dialogue was initiated in order to reveal areas where Cyprus had to make efforts to adapt to the EU’s legal system and policies. The European Council in Luxembourg (1997) confirmed that accession negotiations would begin in spring 1998. Turkish Cypriots were invited to be included in the Cypriot delegation. The accession negotiations started on March 30th 1998. Substantial negotiations for the adoption and the implementation of the EU legislation began in November 1998. A reference to Turkish Cypriot community is included in every position paper. As far as July 2001, all 31 chapters of the acquis have been opened for negotiations and 23 of them have been provisionally closed.
According to the road map of the Commission endorsed by the Council the negotiations should be finished during 2002. Cyprus is expected to be part of the first wave of acceding countries. The Helsinki European Council in December 1999 it was stated: "The European Council underlines that a political settlement will facilitate the accession of Cyprus to the European Union. If no settlement has been reached by the completion of accession negotiations, the Council’s decision on accession will be made without the above being a precondition. In this the Council will take account of all relevant factors".
· FINANCIAL CO-OPERATION
In the past, four financial protocols on financial co-operation were signed between the EU and the Republic of Cyprus, covering a period of 22 years (1978 till 1999). During this time, € 210 Million were made available under the form of loans (152 M€), grants (51 M€), and risk capital (7 M€). The main target sectors were Small and Medium Enterprises, Environment, Energy and Transport. Since 2000, pre-accession aid is available to Cyprus for an amount of 57 M€ to be programmed over 5 years (2000-2004). The new Financial Regulation on the "implementation of the pre-accession strategy" for Cyprus (and Malta) will ensure, like for all Candidate Countries of Central and Eastern Europe, that assistance is targeted towards pre-accession investment priorities, institution-building priorities and support in economic and social cohesion. Additionally, the regulation foresees to support "any operations to contribute to the reconciliation of the two Cypriot communities." For all harmonisation operations, co-financing is being sought being it national (compulsory), or with other donors (Member States, International Financing Institutions). In 2000, the € 9 million available for Cyprus were broken down for harmonisation projects (5 M€), for bi-communal projects (3 M€), for co-financing Cyprus participation in 3 Education and Training Community Programmes (1 M€). In the year 2001, the EU is expected to provide € 11.5 million to support projects for institution building, adoption of the acquis, and bi-communal activities, and to help meet the costs of Cyprus' participation in EC programmes and Agencies. Cyprus also participates in, and benefits from, MEDA funded multi-country and horizontal programmes, and from the TAIEX instrument. The year 2001 is also going to be the year of decentralisation of EU assistance to Cyprus, along the lines applied to central and Eastern European Countries (CEECs). Furthermore, an additional step is in the process of being tested, allowing Cyprus to assume a larger responsibility over the implementation of EU pre-accession assistance, in line with the orientations of the future Structural Funds.
· ECONOMY
Cyprus has a record of successful economic performance and is classified by the World Bank as a high-income country. In the labour market, unemployment has remained low (3.4%) even among ‘vulnerable groups’ (the young, higher education graduates, women and older people). Cypriot economy’s success is attributed to the adoption of a market orientated economic system, the pursuance of macro-economic policies by the government as well as the existence of a dynamic and flexible entrepreneurship and a highly educated labour force. Moreover, the economy benefited from the close co-operation between the public sector and the social partners. During the last decade Cyprus has intensified its economic links to Europe. The Cypriot economy is basically service-oriented with more than 65% of its population employed in that sector, particularly tourism. Although industry and agriculture still employ close to 30% of the population, their contribution to the GDP is lower (21% for industry, 4% for agriculture) and declining every year. The importance of the services in the economy has allowed the Cypriot economy to benefit from productivity gains and show an impressive growth during the last years.
· INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION MEMBERSHIP
Among other international organisations, Cyprus is member of UN (1960), Council of Europe, OSCE, Commonwealth of Nations, IMF, WTO, ILO, IMO, and Interpol. THE CYPRUS QUESTION IN THE EUROPEAN COUNCIL SUMMITS Dublin 26-06-1990 The European Council discussed the Cyprus question in the light of the impasse in the inter-communal dialogue. The European Council, deeply concerned at the situation, fully reaffirms its previous declarations and its support for the unity, independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of Cyprus in accordance with the relevant UN resolutions. Reiterating that the Cyprus problem affects EC-Turkey relations, and bearing in mind the importance of these relations, it stresses the need for the prompt elimination of the obstacles that are preventing the pursuit of effective inter-communal talks aimed at finding a just and viable solution to the question of Cyprus on the basis of the mission of good offices of the UN Secretary General, as it was reaffirmed by Resolution 649 of the Security Council. Luxembourg 10-04-1993 - Commission's opinion The Council supported the Commission's approach, which was to propose, without awaiting a peaceful, balanced and lasting solution to the Cyprus problem, to use all the instruments offered by the Association Agreement to help, in close co-operation with the Cypriot Government, with the economic, social and political transition of Cyprus towards integration into the European Union. To that end the Council invited the Commission to open substantive discussions forthwith with the Government of Cyprus to help it to prepare for the accession negotiations which would then follow under the best possible conditions, and to keep the Council regularly informed of the progress made. The Council also confirmed the Community's support for the efforts made by the United Nations Secretary General to produce a political settlement of the Cyprus question. If, in spite of these efforts, there was no prospect of a solution in the foreseeable future, the Council agreed to reassess the situation in the light of the positions expressed by each side in the inter-community discussions and to examine in January 1995 the question of the accession of Cyprus to the European Union in the light of this situation. Corfu 24-06-1994 The European Council notes that in these conditions the next phase of enlargement of the Union will involve Cyprus and Malta. The European Council, recalling relevant decisions of the Council of 4 October 1993, 18 April 1994 and 13 June 1994, reaffirms that any solution of the Cyprus problem must respect the sovereignty, independence, territorial integrity and unity of the country, in accordance with the relevant United Nations resolutions and high-level agreements. Essen 19-12-1994 The European Council confirms that the next phase of enlargement of the Union will involve Cyprus and Malta and invites the Council to examine in early 1995 new reports to be presented by the Commission. General Affairs Council conclusions 6-03-1995 The Council of Ministers, after re-examining Cyprus' application in line with its earlier decisions and the conclusions of the Corfu and Essen European Councils and after examining the report from the EU observer for Cyprus: reaffirms the suitability of Cyprus for accession to the European Union and confirms the European Union's will to incorporate Cyprus in the next stage of its enlargement, regrets the lack of progress in the inter-communal talks taking place under the auspices of the UN Secretary General and calls upon all parties to step up their efforts to achieve a comprehensive settlement of the Cyprus question in accordance with UN Security Council resolutions, based on the concept of a bi-communal and bi-zonal Federation, considers that the developments noted in the last few months have enabled elements which could be useful for defining an agreement to be identified, considers that Cyprus' accession to the EU should bring increased security and prosperity to both communities on the island. In particular it should allow the North to catch up economically and should improve the outlook for growth and employment, particularly for the Turkish-Cypriot community. The Council considers that this community must perceive the advantages of EU accession more clearly and its concern at the prospect must be allayed. The Council calls upon the Commission to organise the requisite contacts to this end with the Turkish-Cypriot community, in consultation with the Government of Cyprus. Under these circumstances, the Council considers that Cyprus' accession should benefit all communities and help to bring about civil peace and reconciliation; accession negotiations will start on the basis of Commission proposals six months after the conclusion of the 1996 Conference, taking account of the results of the Conference. It calls upon the Commission to continue its work of familiarising the Cyprus administration with the acquis communautaire, which it began a year before in time for the next meeting of the Association Council with Cyprus, it intends to adopt concrete proposals for a specific strategy in preparation for accession, including a structured dialogue, the precise details of which will be established in accordance with the Annex hereto. It confirms that the EU intends to continue to support with all means at its disposal the United Nations' efforts to achieve a comprehensive settlement of the Cyprus question. Madrid 16-12-1995 The European Council reiterates the importance which it attaches to making substantial efforts to achieve a just and viable solution to the question of Cyprus in line with the United Nations Security Council resolutions, on the basis of a bi-zonal and bi-community federation. Dublin 16-12-1996 The European Council urges Turkey to use its influence to contribute to a solution in Cyprus in accordance with UN Security Council resolutions. Luxembourg 12-12-1997 The accession of Cyprus should benefit all communities and help to bring about civil peace and reconciliation. The accession negotiations will contribute positively to the search for a political solution to the Cyprus problem through the talks under the aegis of the United Nations which must continue with a view to creating a bi-community, bi-zonal federation. In this context, the European Council requests that the willingness of the Government of Cyprus to include representatives of the Turkish Cypriot community in the accession negotiating delegation be acted upon. In order for this request to be acted upon, the necessary contacts will be undertaken by the Presidency and the Commission.The European Council recalls that strengthening Turkey's links with the European Union also depends on that country's pursuit of the political and economic reforms on which it has embarked, including the alignment of human rights standards and practices on those in force in the European Union; respect for and protection of minorities; the establishment of satisfactory and stable relations between Greece and Turkey; the settlement of disputes, in particular by legal process, including the International Court of Justice; and support for negotiations under the aegis of the UN on a political settlement in Cyprus on the basis of the relevant UN Security Council Resolutions. Vienna 11-12-1998 The European Council confirms its support for the efforts of the UN Secretary-General towards a comprehensive settlement in Cyprus and in particular for the process being developed by his Deputy Special Representative with the goal of reducing tensions and promoting progress towards a just and lasting settlement based on the relevant UNSC decisions. Helsinki 11-12-99 The European Council welcomes the launch of the talks aiming at a comprehensive settlement of the Cyprus problem on 3 December in New York and expresses its strong support for the UN Secretary-General’s efforts to bring the process to a successful conclusion.The European Council underlines that a political settlement will facilitate the accession of Cyprus to the European Union. If no settlement has been reached by the completion of accession negotiations, the Council’s decision on accession will be made without the above being a precondition. In this the Council will take account of all relevant factors. Nice 8-12-2000 The European Council welcomed and strongly supports the efforts of the United Nations Secretary-General to achieve an overall agreement on the Cyprus problem consistent with the UN Security Council Resolutions and to arrive at a positive conclusion of the process initiated in December 1999. It appeals to all the parties concerned to contribute to the efforts made to this effect.

ESTONIA

Area: 45,227 square km
Population: 1,370,100 (2000 population census). 80% citizens of Estonia, 7% citizens of other countries and 13% stateless
Capital city: Tallinn (population 408,329 or 28% of total population)
Currency: kroon (EEK). Fixed exchange rate: 1 euro = 15.65 EEK
Tax system: 26% flat income tax, 18% VAT. Reinvested corporate profit is tax free
Life expectancy: Average: 65.4 years (male), 76.1 (female)
Official language: Estonian
Religion: Leading role: Lutheran. Others: Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Baptist, Methodist and Roman Catholic
Head of State: President, elected for 5 years. Current President: Mr. Arnold Rüütel (since September 2001
Constitution: The Constitution of Estonia came info force in 1992
Parliament: The Riigikogu. A unicameral parliament of 101 members. Term: 4 years. The last elections were held in March 1999
Electoral system Suffrage universal for citizens who have attained 18 years of age for national elections. All legal residents (for 5 years), regardless of citizenship, who have attained 18 years of age can vote in local elections
Administrative division: 15 counties, 205 rural municipalities and 42 towns (currently under review)
Judicial system: Three-instance court system, 22 courts of first instance (3 city courts, 15 county courts and 4 administrative courts)
GDP/capita: €8,500 (PPS) in 2000
Unemployment rate: 12.0% (3rd quarter 2001)
Inflation rate: 4.2% in 2001
National budget: 2001 budget: 29.8 billion kroons (1.9 billion EUR)
Government deficit: -0.7% of GDP (2000)
Government debt: 5.3% of GDP (2000)
Trade with EU in 2000: Exports to the EU: 77% of the total: 2.6 billion EURImports from the EU: 85% of the total: 2.9 billion EUR
GEOGRAPHY
Estonia lies along the Baltic Sea, just south of Finland and has a climate of icy, snowy winters and long light summers. It is a country about the same size as the Netherlands, and is sparsely populated with around 1.4m people. Tallinn, Estonia’s capital city, is about 80 km or 50 miles south of Helsinki, across the Gulf of Finland. Sweden is Estonia's western neighbour across the Baltic. Russia lies to the east, Latvia to the south.
The country is mostly flat, with many lakes and islands although in the south there are rolling hills and skiing is possible in towns like Otepaa. In the east of Estonia, lake Peipus, the 4th largest lake in Europe, forms a natural frontier with Russia. On the Western Coast, the islands and islets have been designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and are a mecca for Estonians and tourists alike during the summer. Across